End-to-end latency in 5G is the sum of component delays across the entire path: UE processing, air interface (TTI and HARQ), fronthaul (gNB-DU to gNB-CU), midhaul/backhaul (gNB-CU to UPF), core processing (UPF forwarding, SMF decision), and transport to the application server or peering point.

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